PUBLICATIONS

Water insecurity is associated with greater food insecurity and lower dietary diversity: Panel data from sub-Saharan Africa during the COVID-19 pandemic

There is growing recognition that water insecurity – the inability to reliably access sufficient water for all household uses – is commonly experienced globally and has myriad adverse consequences for human well-being. The role of water insecurity in food insecurity and diet quality, however, has received minimal attention. Data are from panel surveys conducted during 2020–21 among adults involved in smallholder agriculture in Niger (n = 364, 3 rounds), Nigeria (n = 501, 5 rounds), Senegal (n = 501, 5 rounds), and Ghana (n = 543, 5 rounds). We hypothesized that household water insecurity (measured using the brief Household Water Insecurity Experiences Scale) would be associated with greater individual food insecurity (using 5 of the 8 Food Insecurity Experiences Scale items) and lower dietary diversity (using the Minimum Dietary Diversity Score for Women). At baseline, 37.1% of individuals were living in water-insecure households and of these, 90.6% had some experience of food insecurity. In multilevel mixed-effects regressions, individuals living in water-insecure households had 1.67 (95% CI: 1.47, 1.89) times higher odds of reporting any food insecurity experience and were estimated to consume 0.38-fewer food groups (95% CI: -0.50, -0.27) than those living in water-secure households. Experiences with suboptimal water access and use are associated with poor nutrition. The pathways by which water insecurity impacts nutrition should be identified. Global and national food and nutrition security policies could be strengthened by monitoring and developing strategies to address household water insecurity.

WEAI-Climate Stakeholder Consultation Workshop

The Methods Module of the CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform convened a group of experts on climate change and gender from CGIAR and partner organizations at a workshop held in Washington, DC, November 9-10, 2023. The goal of the workshop was to identify measurement gaps and best practices to support the development of a new tool for measuring women’s empowerment in the context of climate change and resilience. This new tool will complement the existing project-level Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI) and will be developed and piloted in collaboration with IFPRI’s Gender, Climate Change and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) over the next two years.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Rwanda, Round 1

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Rwanda. The impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with 178 women and 322 men. At the time of data collection, COVID-19 cases had considerably risen in Rwanda. The focus was on the socioeconomic impacts of COVID-19 on work and income; food and nutrition security; mobility and migration; household conflicts during the pandemic and access to services. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing for analysis of the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Rwanda, Round 2

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Rwanda. The impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with 223women and 278 men. At the time of data collection, COVID-19 caseloads were considerably slowing in Rwanda. The focus was on the socioeconomic impacts of COVID-19 on work and income; food and nutrition security; mobility and migration; household conflicts during the pandemic and access to services. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing for analysis of the impact of COVID-19 through time.

Examining the gender digital divide: A case study from rural Kenya

Worldwide, cell phones are used by 5.4 billion people. They are becoming increasingly prevalent in the rural areas of low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), providing smallholder farmers with access to agricultural markets. If they reduce information asymmetries between women and men farmers, they can also contribute to closing the gender gap in agricultural productivity. So far, however, digital innovations have had limited success in transforming agricultural systems. This may be due, in part, to the gender gap in cell-phone use. Rural women in LMICs—particularly those with low incomes, low literacy levels, or disabilities—are less likely than rural men to have access to cell phones, the Internet, digital currency, or other digital services. This policy note summarizes research intended to shed light on the impact of cell-phone ownership and use on the gender gap in agricultural productivity in LMICs.

Integrating gender perspectives to prevent or reduce climate crisis impacts

We cannot overcome the multiple crises facing our world, including the climate crisis, the lingering impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the ongoing food and energy price crisis linked to the war on Ukraine, without integrating a gender perspective into resilience interventions, particularly in the agri-food sector where women have particular roles. However, to date, most climate change policies, investments, and interventions remain gender-blind. As a result, they might exacerbate gender inequalities in food systems by, for instance, increasing women’s labor burden and time poverty, reducing their access to and control over income and assets, and reducing their decision-making power.

The gendered impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya, Niger, Rwanda, and Uganda: Evidence from phone surveys

The COVID-19 pandemic has had far-reaching impacts in every part of the world, including on vulnerable populations in rural areas of low- and middle-income countries. This report explores the ways in which men and women in rural areas of four countries in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)—Kenya, Niger, Rwanda, and Uganda—experienced the COVID-19 pandemic and associated income losses, as well as their responses to the crisis. To identify and monitor the differential effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on women and men in rural households, IFPRI conducted phone surveys in selected regions of the four focal countries, with financial and technical support from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The surveys traced gender differences in responses to the pandemic and associated restrictions, such as choice of coping strategies, access to public assistance, and changes in the care burden for men and women.

Examining the gender digital divide: A case study from rural Nigeria

Rural Nigeria, with its diverse cultural and socio economic landscapes, presents unique challenges when it comes to digital inclusion. Traditional gender roles, limited educational opportunities, inadequate infrastructure, and sociocultural norms often combine to create barriers that disproportionately affect women’s access to digital technologies. As a result, women in rural areas face significant challenges in acquiring digital skills, accessing online information and services, and participating in digital platforms, thus perpetuating the gender gap and further marginalizing women from the benefits of the digital revolution. This policy note summarizes research designed to highlight the barriers female farmers in Nigeria face in accessing technology and information so that stakeholders can work together to ensure that Nigeria’s rural women are equipped with the necessary tools and resources to thrive in the digital age and contribute meaningfully to their communities.

Examining the gender digital divide: A case study from rural Bangladesh

Women farmers in Bangladesh face several challenges when it comes to accessing technology and information, and this limits their ability to improve their agricultural productivity and enhance their livelihoods. The gendered digital divide is a significant contributor to inequities in agriculture and has important implications for women’s empowerment. Lack of access to information affects their ability to make informed decisions, access markets, and secure their rights. This policy note summarizes research designed to identify the barriers female farmers in Bangladesh face in accessing technology and information so that future policies and initiatives can address these challenges and, in so doing, promote gender equality and the empowerment of rural women.

Gender, resilience, and food systems

Research on the gender dimensions of resilience highlights differences in the ways that men and women experience disturbances, their resilience capacities, and their preferred responses. This chapter incorporates a food systems lens into a gender and resilience framework to identify key entry points to strengthen women’s and men’s food security and nutrition in the face of multiple, reoccurring shocks and stressors. Drawing on systematic reviews and case studies from the literature, this chapter finds that exposure and sensitivity to disturbances depend largely on gendered roles in food systems, including along agricultural value chains, and the food environments in which men and women live. Increasing women’s resilience capacities—which tend to be lower than men’s—through investments in education, information and financial services, employment opportunities, and women’s agency, can improve food security and nutrition outcomes and increase their contribution to food system resilience. Considering gender differences in needs and preferences in policy and intervention design is, therefore, essential to ensure that investments reach, benefit, and empower women as agents of change for greater resilience.

Gender implications of agricultural commercialization in Africa: Evidence from farm households in Ethiopia and Nigeria

Agricultural commercialization is often pursued as an important driver of agricultural transformation in low-income countries. However, the implications it can have on gendered outcomes are less understood. While agricultural commercialization creates opportunities to increase income, this may come at the expense of change in women’s decision-making agency and control over resources. Understanding the interactions between agricultural commercialization and gender outcomes is thus critical for policymakers aspiring to achieve agricultural transformation while promoting gender equity and the evidence on the links between the two in the context of Africa is scarce and mixed. We use three rounds of Ethiopia’s and Nigeria’s LSMS-ISA panel data to understand the implications of agricultural commercialization to gendered decision-making on crop harvest use, marketing, revenue control, asset ownership, and intrahousehold budget allocation. Results indicate commercialization is associated with decreases in women’s participation in decision-making related to use of harvest, crop marketing, and control over revenue in Ethiopia, but only on harvest use and control over revenue in Nigeria. The association with land ownership is mixed: positive in Ethiopia but negative in Nigeria. Moreover, commercialization is associated with decreases in women’s share of farm-workload but with increases in share of hired labor in Ethiopia. In Ethiopia we also find women’s control over revenue is positively associated with increases in per capita consumption expenditures and dietary diversity, but men’s control is negatively associated with increases in the share of expenditure on children’s shoes and clothes. In Nigeria, women’s control is positively associated with increases in the share of expenditure on women’s shoes and clothes, food gap, and dietary diversity. In sum, we find suggestive evidence that commercialization may further marginalize women’s decision-making agency in Ethiopia and Nigeria. However, conditional on women’s control over proceeds, commercialization tends to improve women’s as well as other members’ welfare. We provide some policy recommendations and directions for future research.

How weather variability and extreme shocks affect women's participation in African agriculture

Agriculture is strongly affected by environmental factors, including variability in temperature and precipitation, which in turn shape the livelihoods farmers derive. In this context, the intensity of engagement in agriculture is directly influenced by temperature and rainfall patterns (ILO 2018). Both extreme weather shocks (that is, heat waves, droughts, and floods) and weather variability (that is, changes in temperature and rainfall patterns) can significantly disrupt participation in agriculture and related sectors, particularly when farmers’ capacity to cope with and adapt to these shocks is low. This policy note summarizes the results of a study designed to quantify the impact of climate variability and extreme weather shocks on the intensity of individuals’ participation in the agricultural sector in Africa, where intra-annual weather variability is high, and dependence on rainfed agriculture is significant. The study specifically focused on changes in the number of weekly hours worked in response to weather variability and climate extremes, and explored both the impact on women’s participation and their potential to mitigate the negative effects of these shocks.

To ease the world food crisis, focus resources on women and girls

Weather variability and extreme shocks in Africa: Are female or male farmers more affected?

African agriculture is highly sensitive to weather variability and extreme weather shocks. The question of how weather events affect participation in agricultural employment—including from a gender perspective—remains unanswered. This study aims to empirically quantify differences in how women and men adapt their participation in agricultural employment in response to climate variability and extreme weather events. Our study uses a novel individual-level database that draws mostly from Labour Force Surveys (LFS) that represents more than 80% of the total African population and covers nearly 86% of the Africa’s total workforce. In order to identify shock-affected areas, we match data from that LFS with gridcell monthly time series bioclimatic variables (temperature and rainfall). We estimate two systems of equations using the seemingly unrelated regressions (SUR) estimator to account for the potential contemporaneous correlation of the error terms in each equation. Descriptive results by region show that, regardless of age and sex, agriculture dominates employment distribution. In West and Central Africa and in East and Southern Africa region the agricultural sector employs the largest share of the working population. Multivariate SUR results show that, of all weather events, heat waves and droughts have the greatest detrimental effecton the intensity of individual efforts in agriculture; the number of work hours is reduced by 40% in the case of heat waves and 14% during droughts. If farmers are women, however, the reduction in work hours due to heat wave is lessened by 40%. Given the fundamental role of women both in agricultural production and in coping with extreme weather shocks, the key priorities would lie on implementation of sustainable, climate-resilient, and gender-sensitive policies; corresponding interventions in the labor market; and gender mainstreaming in planning and promoting agriculture- and job-related programs.

Sex-disaggregated agricultural extension and weather variability in Africa south of the Sahara

Climate change and extreme weather shocks pose serious threats to a number of agricultural outcomes, including agricultural production, productivity, and income, especially when households depend heavily on this activity. Agricultural extension and rural advisory services are key instruments in promoting technical change, advancing agricultural productivity growth and, ultimately, improving farm livelihoods, and are expected to mitigate the negative effects of climate change and extreme weather shocks. Their mitigation effects, however, may vary depending on the sex of the recipient. This paper investigates the role of sex-disaggregated agricultural extension recipients in contexts where agricultural performance of farm households is affected by weather variability. To this aim, we match multiple rounds of panel microdata from the nationally representative, consumption-based Living Standards Measurement Study -Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA), collected in four sub-Saharan African countries, with remote sensing data on biophysical dimensions over a long-term horizon as well as year-specific weather shocks. To our knowledge, this is the first time that a micro-level dataset with individual-level information on agricultural extension services’ recipients has been assembled and examined to investigate the effects of extreme weather shocks and climate change. Applying panel data econometric estimators, the study finds that agricultural extension and advisory services translate into higher agricultural performance of farm households where women are also among the beneficiaries, as compared to non-beneficiaries and households where beneficiaries are men only. Moreover, these services can mitigate the negative effects of weather variability and climate change, controlling for country and time fixed effects as well as holding all other variables constant. These results call for national and international policies and interventions strengthening rural advisory services, especially targeted to women in settings where household livelihoods are predominantly agriculture-based and weather variability and shocks are expected to negatively affect farming activities.

Hello, can you hear me? Impact of speakerphones on phone survey responses

Ensuring privacy of respondents in phone surveys is especially challenging compared to face-to-face interviews. While the use of phone surveys has become more common in development research, there is little information on how the conduct of phone surveys affects responses. Using phone survey data from India and Nepal, we test the impact of speakerphone use on bias in responses by women and men. We find that 65% of women respondents in India, and 61% of women and 59% of men respondents in Nepal had their phone on speaker during the survey. Speakerphone use is lower when women are matched with the same enumerators in the second round. Speaker use was associated with lower reported agency by women over their own income and the income of their spouse, while it is opposite for men. Our findings have important implication for the collection, design, and analysis of phone survey data.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Ghana, Round 1

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Ghana. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing for analysis of the impact of COVID-19 through time.

Gender gaps in agricultural growth and development: Opportunities for improving gender-responsive programming

In addition to identifying gender gaps and other challenges and opportunities for entrepreneurship in agricultural growth and development, this brief focuses on potential for improvement in the key areas of (1) seed systems, (2) finance and market access, and (3) production and value chains. While gender norms and challenges are inherently context-specific, the underlying intention of this evidence brief is to provide an overview of research findings from low- and middle-income countries, to address key questions and challenges that can be generalized across contexts, and to offer suggestions of promising approaches and best practices.

Weather variability and extreme shocks in Africa: Are female or male farmers more affected?

Agriculture in Africa has been traditionally seen as an important employment provider, supporting agriculture-based livelihoods of the vast majority of the African population, (James, 2014; World Bank, 2011) and absorbing the largest share of the employed population. Data suggest that almost 224 million people aged 15 and above are directly engaged in agriculture in Africa (ILO, 2021), corresponding to nearly half of the total employed population in the continent and absorbing ¼ of global agricultural employment.

State of knowledge on gender and resilience

Resource-poor people face multiple risks and disturbances across social, economic, health, political, and environmental spheres. Included among these are conflict, public health threats, corruption, climate change, and natural resource degradation. The concept of resilience provides a useful framework for considering potential solutions to these intersecting challenges. This is particularly the case in situations where structural problems and inequalities—such as chronic poverty and gender gaps—underlie persistent and recurring shocks. Growing evidence shows that men and women have different exposure to shocks and stressors, and different preferences and capacities in terms of their responses. This stems from gendered social, cultural, and institutional contexts that shape such factors as their livelihood activities, roles, and bargaining power. Importantly, these factors are intrinsically linked with women’s empowerment levels, including their ability to access resources and make strategic life choices to improve their overall wellbeing. Because shocks and stressors occur in local contexts with different power structures, institutions, and sociocultural norms, it is difficult to generalize the different ways men and women are affected and choose to respond. Men’s and women’s experiences and reactions largely depend on the types of overlapping shocks and stressors they are exposed to. This brief highlights some of the key gendered dimensions of resilience, drawing on evidence from the literature, including systematic reviews and global indicators, where available, as well as case-study examples that highlight important linkages. The evidence summarized is intended to guide the development and implementation of gender-sensitive resilience interventions focusing on key programming areas of interest to Feed the Future’s Center for Resilience.

Gendered impacts of COVID-19: Insights from 7 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia

It is widely recognized that periods of crisis affect men and women differently, mediated by their access to resources and information, as well as social and institutional structures that may systematically disadvantage women from being able to access relief, institutional support, and rehabilitation. To capture the gendered impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns, we conducted phone surveys in seven countries spread across Asia and Africa. The study was designed as a longitudinal panel study with five rounds of data collection in Ghana, Nepal, Nigeria, and Senegal, and three rounds of data collection in Kenya, Niger, and Uganda. Both men and women were administered the same survey, with some modifications made across countries to adapt to local contexts. This report gives an overview of our findings covering several topics including income loss, coping strategies, labor and time use, food and water insecurity and child education outcomes. We find widespread reports of income loss, which declined over time, but increased again as countries experienced a resurgence in COVID-19 cases and fatality. We find that households first depleted savings when faced with income loss and over time, use of savings reduced while other measures began to be adopted. Women reported greater food and water insecurity compared to men, including worrying about insufficient food and eating less than usual. This is particularly worrying since a large proportion of women also did not have adequately diverse diets. Moderate to severe water insecurity was reported in many of the countries, and as with food insecurity, women were more likely to report issues with accessing water for drinking and other household activities. In some countries, additional modules were added to capture country specific issues of policy relevance, such agriculture extension, mental health, and child marriage. The results make it clear that proactive investments will be needed, including social safety nets, favorable credit policies, nutrition and water investments, to ensure that the crisis does not further widen the gender gap in resources and achievements in rural areas of low- and middle-income countries.

Women’s empowerment and COVID-19: A case study from Kenya

Research shows that the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic varied greatly by country, class, race and gender (Pangborn & Rea, 2020). In this study we aim to understand how the COVID-19 pandemic affected empowered and disempowered individuals differently. This policy note summarizes how income was affected by the pandemic, followed by an assessment of coping mechanisms with the crisis and their interactions with women’s empowerment.

Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on women and men in Kaduna and Cross River states of Nigeria

The study was conducted in Kaduna State and Cross River State in Nigeria. It was designed as a longitudinal panel study with five rounds of data collection. The study used primary quantitative data collected using structured questionnaires administered through phone-based surveys. The study sample was drawn using systematic random sampling from an earlier in-person survey conducted by IFPRI for the Agro Processing, Productivity Enhancement and Livelihood Improvement Support’ (APPEALS) project. Figure 1 provides a detailed description on the study timeline and sample size covered in each round.

Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on rural women and men in Dang District, Nepal

To understand the impact of COVID-19 on rural women, we designed a longitudinal panel study with five rounds of phone survey data collection in Dang district in the mid-western region of Nepal. This note summarizes results from all rounds. The study sample was drawn using systematic random sampling from a large, representative household listing survey conducted in February 2020 across four rural municipalities in Dang district. Figure 1 provides a detailed description on the study timeline and sample size covered in each round.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Nepal, Round 3

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Nepal. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 449 women and 178 male farmers randomly drawn from a pre-listing exercise done for a previous household survey in 2020. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time. This is Round 3 of the five surveys done so far.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Nepal, Round 2

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Nepal. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 490 women and 200 male farmers randomly drawn from a pre-listing exercise done for a previous household survey in 2020. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time. This is Round 2 of the five surveys done so far.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Nepal, Round 5

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Nepal. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 449 women and 178 male farmers randomly drawn from a pre-listing exercise done for a previous household survey in 2020. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time. This is Round 5 of the five surveys done so far.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Nepal, Round 4

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Nepal. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 421 women and 161 male farmers randomly drawn from a pre-listing exercise done for a previous household survey in 2020. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time. This is Round 4 of the five surveys done so far.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Kenya, Round 4

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Kenya. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 600 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Nepal, Round 1

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Nepal. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 540 women and 219 male farmers randomly drawn from a pre-listing exercise done for a previous household survey in 2020. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time. This is Round 1 of the five surveys done so far.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Ghana, Round 5

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Ghana. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Nigeria, Round 5

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Nigeria. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Ghana, Round 6

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Ghana. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing for analysis of the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Uganda, Round 2

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Uganda. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 1600 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Uganda, Round 4

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Uganda. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Uganda, Round 3

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Uganda. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 1100 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Uganda, Round 1

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Uganda. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 1000 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Nigeria, Round 4

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Nigeria. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Nigeria, Round 1

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Nigeria. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Nigeria, Round 3

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Nigeria. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Nigeria, Round 2

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Nigeria. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on rural women and men in the Niger

In response to the first case of COVID-19 in Niger on March 19, the government announced a state of emergency on March 27, 2020. Restrictions were gradually lifted starting in May 2020. The spread of COVID-19 in Niger has been limited. To understand the gendered impacts of the pandemic, phone surveys with rural women and men in Niger were conducted. The study was conducted in 8 regions of the country: Agadez, Diffa, Dosso, Maradi, Niamey, Tahoua, Tillaberi, and Zinder. A sample was drawn from a series of previous surveys that had collected phone numbers. Four rounds of the phone survey were conducted in October 2020, December 2020, February 2021, and April 2021. The surveys focused on the economic impact, coping strategies, impact on food security and dietary diversity and the impact on children’s education and care burden. This brief presents the findings.

Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on rural women and men in Kenya

The first wave of COVID-19 cases occurred between June and August 2020. A second wave occurred between October and December 2020 and by the end of December 2020, the number of COVID-19 cases was 92 459. The third rise in cases occurred between January and March of 2021 and partial lockdowns were reimposed in the most affected counties of the country, including mobility restrictions and curfews. This brief releases data on the gender impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on rural households/livelihoods and the agricultural sector in Kenya.

Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on rural women and men in Uganda

The first case of COVID-19 in Uganda was reported on March 22, 2020. The number of COVID-19 cases remained low during the first three quarters of 2020, before a first spike toward the end of the year. To understand the gendered impacts of the pandemic, phone surveys with rural women and men in Uganda were conducted. Data were collected from a sub-set of households drawn from a survey conducted in 2017 in 8 districts of the country: Iganga, Kasese, Kiboga, Luwero, Masaka, Masindi, Mbale, and Mubende. Four rounds of phone surveys were conducted in October 2020, February 2021, April 2021, and June 2021. The surveys focused on the economic impact, coping strategies, impact on food security and dietary diversity and the impact on children’s education and care burden. This brief presents the findings.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Ghana, Round 3

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Ghana. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Ghana, Round 2

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Ghana. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Ghana, Round 4

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Ghana. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Senegal, Round 4

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Senegal. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Niger, Round 3

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Niger. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Niger, Round 4

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Niger. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Niger, Round 1

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Niger. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Senegal, Round 3

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Senegal. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Senegal, Round 5

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Senegal. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Niger, Round 2

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Niger. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Senegal, Round 1

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Senegal. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Senegal, Round 2

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Senegal. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

Food security and women’s well-being: Insights from rural Nepal

As the impacts of the COVID-19 continue to be felt across the world, the need to address the vulnerabilities of the poor and marginalized is heightened. In rural and agriculture dependent economies, it is often the farm sector that is most severely impacted in times of crisis, in large part due to the lack of access to risk and loss mitigation measures, and limited access to government assistance. Among those who are affected, periods of crisis are often worse for vulnerable groups such as children, women and those belonging to historically disadvantaged groups and communities. We use four rounds of phone survey data from farmers in Nepal conducted between June 2020 to January 2021, to study the impacts of the pandemic and associated lockdowns on maize farmers in Dang district of Nepal, with a focus on food security and dietary diversity. Our sample comprises of nearly 690 respondents, of which 70% are women. The area where our survey is conducted, borders India and thus sees large out-migration of men, leaving women as de-facto heads of households.

Re-examining the effects of drought on intimate-partner violence

Droughts are associated with several societal ills, especially in developing economies that rely on rainfed agriculture. Recently, researchers have begun to examine the effect of droughts on the risk of Intimate-Partner Violence (IPV), but so far this work has led to inconclusive results. For example, two large recent studies analyzed comparable data from multiple sub-Saharan African countries and drew opposite conclusions. We attempt to resolve this apparent paradox by replicating previous analyses with the largest data set yet assembled to study drought and IPV. Integrating the methods of previous studies and taking particular care to control for spatial autocorrelation, we find little association between drought and most forms of IPV, although we do find evidence of associations between drought and women’s partners exhibiting controlling behaviors. Moreover, we do not find significant heterogeneous effects based on wealth, employment, household drinking water sources, or urban-rural locality.

Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on rural women and men in Kenya

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Kenyan government declared a nationwide dusk to dawn curfew in March 2020 that was lifted in large parts later in the year, followed by off-and-on reinstatements of curfews and limitations on mobility largely for the capital region. The government also banned religious and other public gatherings and encouraged people to work from home and practice social distancing. The government has extended social protection programs, including public works programs and stipends and cash transfers, which are often targeted to women and single parent households and other vulnerable members of society to support them through the pandemic.

Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on rural women and men in Senegal

To understand the impact of COVID-19 on rural women, we designed a longitudinal panel study collecting five rounds of phone survey data with data drawn from a representative face-to-face survey in rural Senegal covering Fatick, Kaffrine, Kaolack, Kedougou, Kolda, Matam, Saint-Louis, Sedhiou, Tambacounda, and Ziguinchor regions. Due to low survey coverage of females in the first round, the second and third rounds surveyed both spouses and then randomly picked one male or female respondent per household to include in the study. For comparability we focus on findings from rounds 2-5. Figure 1 provides a detailed description of the study timeline and sample size covered in each round.

Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on rural women and men in northern Ghana

While the lockdown in Ghana due to COVID-19 was not as stringent or long as in other countries (at least up to June 2021), it has severely affected rural household incomes, including remittances. Almost three-quarters of households surveyed reported income loss due to the pandemic in Aug/Sep 2020. Use of savings, borrowing and asset sales were common. Women often relied on men’s savings as a coping strategy; government transfers were insignificant. Addressing COVID-19 in rural areas is hindered by a domestic water supply crisis. Approximately half of respondents reported being worried about water availability, changing their activities due to lack of water, not having enough drinking water, and not washing hands when necessary.

The heat never bothered me anyway: Gender‐specific response of agricultural labor to climatic shocks in Tanzania

Agricultural production in Africa is generally highly labor intensive with gender‐specific specialization across activities. Using panel data from Tanzania, we examine the effects of heat stress (temperature above 29°C) during the maize‐growing season on gender‐disaggregated agricultural labor use. Results show that heat stress reduces total male family labor but does not statistically affect female family labor. Households with only female adults seem to increase their labor supply under heat stress. Given these heterogeneous effects, gender‐sensitive development interventions and adaptation strategies are suggested to enhance women's adaptive capacity.

Women's access to agriculture extension amidst COVID-19: Insights from Gujarat, India and Dang, Nepal

COVID-19 induced lockdowns have had far reaching impacts on the rural sector, particularly on women farmers. These impacts have been exacerbated by lack of access to reliable and timely agriculture information. Using panel phone survey data from India and Nepal, we study how women's access to agricultural extension was impacted by the lockdowns and its effect on agricultural productivity. We find that women's already low access to formal extension was reduced further, leading to an increased reliance on informal social networks. In both countries, nearly 50% farmers reported negative impacts on productivity due to inaccessibility of information during the lockdown. In India, we find that access to formal extension is mediated by crop type, geographic location and caste identity. We discuss ways in which extension systems in India and Nepal can be made more inclusive and resilient to future crisis, including by adapting group and community-based approaches to post-pandemic best practices.

Assessing the risk of COVID-19 in Nigeria

As COVID-19 vaccines are becoming available, governments will need to assess the number and location of the most vulnerable people within their populations. However, problematically, tracking data for most low- and middle-income countries are only available at the national level. To support the COVID-19 relief effort, the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) was commissioned to develop a subnational dataset of key COVID-19 risk indicators and potential risk hotspots.

Assessing the risk of COVID-19 in Uganda

As COVID-19 vaccines are becoming available, governments will need to assess the number and location of the most vulnerable people within their populations. However, problematically, tracking data for most low- and middle-income countries are only available at the national level. To support the COVID-19 relief effort, the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) was commissioned to develop a subnational dataset of key COVID-19 risk indicators and potential risk hotspots.

Assessing the risk of COVID-19 in Senegal

As COVID-19 vaccines are becoming available, governments will need to assess the number and location of the most vulnerable people within their populations. However, problematically, tracking data for most low- and middle-income countries are only available at the national level. To support the COVID-19 relief effort, the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) was commissioned to develop a subnational dataset of key COVID-19 risk indicators and potential risk hotspots.

Assessing the risk of COVID-19 in Nepal

As COVID-19 vaccines are becoming available, governments will need to assess the number and location of the most vulnerable people within their populations. However, problematically, tracking data for most low- and middle-income countries are only available at the national level. To support the COVID-19 relief effort, the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) was commissioned to develop a subnational dataset of key COVID-19 risk indicators and potential risk hotspots.

Assessing the risk of COVID-19 in Feed the Future countries

In anticipation of the development of a safe and effective COVID-19 vaccine—the distribution of which will be a complex and sensitive issue—governments will need to assess the number and location of the most vulnerable people within their populations. Problematically, however, tracking data for most low- and middle-income countries are only available at the national level. The most widely used dataset by the Johns Hopkins University Center for Systems Science and Engineering (Dong, Du, and Gardner 2020), for example, does not include subnational data for Feed the Future’s 12 target countries in Africa south of the Sahara (SSA) and South Asia: Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guatemala, Honduras, Kenya, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria, Mali, Senegal, and Uganda. For this reason, the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) was commissioned to correlate Demographic and Health Survey data from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) with geospatial data in order to develop a subnational dataset of key COVID-19 risk indicators based on which potential risk hotspots were identified. This summarizes the study’s analysis in the 12 Feed the Future countries and across subnational administrative units within each country.

Assessing the risk of COVID-19 in Ghana

As COVID-19 vaccines are becoming available, governments will need to assess the number and location of the most vulnerable people within their populations. However, problematically, tracking data for most low- and middle-income countries are only available at the national level. To support the COVID-19 relief effort, the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) was commissioned to develop a subnational dataset of key COVID-19 risk indicators and potential risk hotspots.

Assessing the risk of COVID-19 in Kenya

As COVID-19 vaccines are becoming available, governments will need to assess the number and location of the most vulnerable people within their populations. However, problematically, tracking data for most low- and middle-income countries are only available at the national level. To support the COVID-19 relief effort, the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) was commissioned to develop a subnational dataset of key COVID-19 risk indicators and potential risk hotspots.

Assessing the risk of COVID-19 in Ethiopia

As COVID-19 vaccines are becoming available, governments will need to assess the number and location of the most vulnerable people within their populations. However, problematically, tracking data for most low- and middle-income countries are only available at the national level. To support the COVID-19 relief effort, the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) was commissioned to develop a subnational dataset of key COVID-19 risk indicators and potential risk hotspots.

Assessing the risk of COVID-19 in Mali

As COVID-19 vaccines are becoming available, governments will need to assess the number and location of the most vulnerable people within their populations. However, problematically, tracking data for most low- and middle-income countries are only available at the national level. To support the COVID-19 relief effort, the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) was commissioned to develop a subnational dataset of key COVID-19 risk indicators and potential risk hotspots.

Assessing the risk of COVID-19 in Guatemala

As COVID-19 vaccines are becoming available, governments will need to assess the number and location of the most vulnerable people within their populations. However, problematically, tracking data for most low- and middle-income countries are only available at the national level. To support the COVID-19 relief effort, the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) was commissioned to develop a subnational dataset of key COVID-19 risk indicators and potential risk hotspots.

Assessing the risk of COVID-19 in Niger

As COVID-19 vaccines are becoming available, governments will need to assess the number and location of the most vulnerable people within their populations. However, problematically, tracking data for most low- and middle-income countries are only available at the national level. To support the COVID-19 relief effort, the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) was commissioned to develop a subnational dataset of key COVID-19 risk indicators and potential risk hotspots.

Assessing the risk of COVID-19 in Honduras

As COVID-19 vaccines are becoming available, governments will need to assess the number and location of the most vulnerable people within their populations. However, problematically, tracking data for most low- and middle-income countries are only available at the national level. To support the COVID-19 relief effort, the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) was commissioned to develop a subnational dataset of key COVID-19 risk indicators and potential risk hotspots.

Assessing the risk of COVID-19 in Bangladesh

As COVID-19 vaccines are becoming available, governments will need to assess the number and location of the most vulnerable people within their populations. However, problematically, tracking data for most low- and middle-income countries are only available at the national level. To support the COVID-19 relief effort, the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN) was commissioned to develop a subnational dataset of key COVID-19 risk indicators and potential risk hotspots.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Kenya, Round 2

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Kenya. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 600 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Kenya, Round 1

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Kenya. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 600 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

COVID-19 Impact on Rural Men and Women in Kenya, Round 3

This dataset is the result of a phone survey set up to measure the impact of COVID-19 on rural people in Kenya. As most governments have urged the population to stay at home to slow down the transmission of the disease, the impact of COVID-19 can affect women and men in different ways: as an income shock (directly or indirectly); as a health and caring shock; as a shock of mobility (affecting access to water, food, firewood, schooling); and as a risk of increased domestic conflict and violence. To capture these various effects on household welfare, this phone survey was conducted with (around) 500 individuals randomly drawn from an existing list of phone numbers collected from previous household surveys with an equal proportion of women and men. The same individuals were also interviewed during other rounds to generate a longitudinal panel allowing to analyze the impact of COVID-19 through time.

Women’s empowerment and farmland allocations in Bangladesh: Evidence of a possible pathway to crop diversification

Climate change will likely affect several of the dimensions that determine people’s food security status in Bangladesh, from crop production to the availability and accessibility of food products. Crop diversification is a form of adaptation to climate change that reduces exposure to climate-related risks and has also been shown to increase diet diversity, reduce micronutrient deficiencies, and positively affect agro-ecological systems. Despite these benefits, the level of crop diversification in Bangladesh remains extremely low, requiring an examination of the factors that support uptake of this practice. This paper explores whether women’s empowerment, measured using the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), leads to increased diversification in the use of farmland. Our results reveal that some aspects of women’s empowerment in agriculture, but not all, lead to more diversification and to a transition from cereal production to other crops like vegetables and fruits. These findings suggest a possible pathway for gender-sensitive interventions that promote crop diversity as a risk management tool and as a way to improve the availability of nutritious crops.

COVID-19 and gender: Potential pathways of impact and research challenges

The impacts of COVID-19 are being felt widely across the globe as most countries and localities urge residents to remain home to slow transmission of the disease. This global health crisis is particularly threatening to the global poor, who may be more susceptible to contracting the virus, have limited access to healthcare, and are more vulnerable to economic impacts. Yet, poor male and female farmers in developing countries may not experience this crisis in the same way. In order to understand how the pandemic is differently affecting men and women in developing countries, IFPRI is implementing a series of phone surveys with poor rural men and women in selected Feed-the-Future countries as part of the Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative (GCAN). The same survey is being carried out in India with the grassroots women’s organization, SEWA, as part of the BMZ-supported project on Reaching Smallholder Women with Information Services and Resilience Strategies to Respond to Climate Change.

COVID-19 challenges to equity: Insights from rural Nepal and Senegal

Globally, COVID-19 has exposed farmers to high levels of income insecurity, underlining the importance of building resilience among male and female farmers. Female farmers might be particularly vulnerable to COVID-19 impacts due to lower incomes, higher illiteracy, and limited access to resources, time poverty due to increasing domestic and productive responsibilities, and overall patriarchal norms including restrictions on mobility that prevent women from realizing their productive potential.

Agriculture and youth in Nigeria: Aspirations, challenges, constraints, and resilience

Nigeria’s rural youth are facing various challenges in agriculture, with limited job opportunities outside the sector. Using qualitative focus group discussions and individual interviews with youth in four communities in two Nigerian states, the paper reflects on nuanced differences in perceptions of opportunities, coping mechanisms and overall resilience of youth in rural Nigeria, as well as differential access to information, inputs and irrigation based on age, gender and community. We apply the GCAN framework, to illustrate the factors that shape resilience pathways in the context of climate change and other shocks and stressors. Many of the constraints rural youth face are faced by other groups, including lack of finance, farm inputs and modern equipment for production and processing. Yet, youth face higher and specific hurdles related to lack of capital, experience and a strong social capital and networks that would facilitate coping with climatic and other shocks and improving their livelihoods. Young women in particular have less access to information and irrigation, and are less likely to benefit from cooperative memberships. Nevertheless, young men and women have higher resilience compared to older groups in terms of health, mobility and ability to migrate, as well as easier access to the internet as a source of information. Youth can better build resilience and a network and receive government assistance when part of a cooperative. Nevertheless, a larger enabling environment in the sector is needed, to improve roads, access to markets, information, inputs and equipment to support young farmers who cannot leave the agriculture sector. A promising factor is that many young men and women realize the importance of agriculture and aspire to become successful in the sector.

The role of risk in the context of climate change, land use choices and crop production: Evidence from Zambia

Most of the studies that investigate the impacts of climate change on agriculture have concentrated on the effects of changes in mean temperature and precipitation even though the importance of volatility and risk on farmers’ decision making is well documented. This study examines the empirical importance of the effects of risk associated with the impacts of climate change on farm land allocations and consequent effects on agricultural output in Zambia. We used a discrete-choice model consistent with a mean-variance utility function to model farm-level land allocations among alternative crops. Results indicate that risk-reducing decisions can reinforce crop shifts driven by climate change impacts on mean temperature and precipitation. While an analysis of the available per-capita daily nutrients reveals that farmers’ crop allocation choices can mitigate the negative effects of climate change, the opportunity cost of these decisions is explored through a simulation scenario in which yield variability is reduced to zero. Reduction of yield variability leads to land allocations that result in a sizable increase in total crop production and a significant increase in available per capita daily calories. Important conclusions can be derived from this analysis. First, the risk environment matters and should not be ignored. When the economic effects of climate change are considered, decision making under uncertainty and risk should be at the forefront of the problems that need to be addressed. Second, concentrating on farm-level effects of responses to climate change is not sufficient. To understand the economy-wide consequences of climate change, the aggregate effects of individual decisions should be assessed. Third, results indicate that increased efforts in risk management and in developing policies aimed at reducing risk can lead to significant positive outcomes for the nutritional status of low-income, food-insecure populations.

Addressing gender and social dynamics to strengthen resilience for all

2019 ReSAKSS Annual Trends and Outlook Report 127 In the face of various social, economic, health, political, and environmental risks, resource-poor people and communities in rural Africa employ diverse livelihood strategies to avoid, cope with, and adapt to multiple shocks and stressors. The African continent faces severe challenges related to increasing temperatures, water stress, and environmental degradation (Niang et al. 2014), and climate change exacerbates the risks posed by other threats such as rapid population growth, haphazard urbanization, conflict, extreme poverty, food and nutrition insecurity, public health threats, and corruption. In recognition of this confluence of risks and the diverse strategies people use to manage risk, the concept of resilience has taken hold in humanitarian and development communities as a unifying framework for identifying and planning for multiple, simultaneous risks that threaten rural people’s well-being. In addition, a resilience lens widens the time frame for considering risks. In so doing, it helps focus attention on the implications of humanitarian interventions on longer-term development and on safeguarding development gains against shocks, thereby helping to bridge the humanitarian and development sectors (Frankenberger et al. 2014; Béné et al. 2016).

Adapting the global food system to new climate realities: Guiding principles and priorities

The effects of climate change are increasingly felt among vulnerable populations in many developing countries, particularly those relying on agriculture for their livelihoods, but also the urban poor. Adverse impacts include lower crop yields and crop nutritional values and ripple effects will be felt throughout the entire food value chain unless significant adaptation actions are taken. This paper takes a broad food system perspective and connects the roles and actions of international organi-zations, national governments, local communities and farmers. After an extensive review of the likely effects of climate change and the available adaptation responses, the paper identifies a series of guiding principles to be considered by decision makers as they plan adaptation actions.

Evaluating the risk of climate change-induced aflatoxin contamination in groundnuts and maize: Result of modeling analyses in six countries

This policy note summarizes research that assessed the likely impact of climate change on aflatoxin contamination in groundnuts (in Burkina Faso, Niger, and Nigeria) and in maize (in Burkina Faso, Honduras, Guatemala, Nepal, Niger, and Nigeria), and the impact of temperature, precipitation, and soil types on aflatoxin contamination. A future goal is to improve the calibration of the modeling software utilized to enable its use as an early warning tool for aflatoxin hotspots.

Evaluating risk of aflatoxin field contamination from climate change using new modules inside DSSAT

Aflatoxins affect the health of close to 70 percent of the population of the world through contaminated food. Smallholder farmers in developing countries can be especially hard hit, since they consume a high proportion of what they produce without a clear knowledge of the level of contamination their harvest might have. Climate change can cause dramatic shifts in the level of contamination and the frequency of that high levels of aflatoxins are found in harvested foods, particularly maize and groundnuts. In this paper, we introduce new software that is able to estimate potential field concentrations of aflatoxins based on weather, and then apply the software to the question of how projected changes in climate will affect the occurrence of aflatoxins in six countries. The analysis is done at a very fine geographic resolution so that problem areas within countries are also identified. For rainfed groundnuts, baseline period calculations using the module show fairly high frequency of expected contamination levels above 4 ppb for Burkina Faso and Niger (39 and 56 percent), while Nigeria has a more modest estimate of 14 percent. However, factoring in climate change, we find great variation in projections. One of the five climate models used in the analysis projects a much wetter region which serves to drive down aflatoxin concentrations steeply. However, others have lower or even negative projections for changes in rainfall and coupled with temperature increases (large in some climate models), three of the five climate models project rising aflatoxin concentrations. The frequency of projected contamination levels above 4 ppb in rainfed maize are high in the baseline for Niger, at 43 percent, though Niger grows little maize. Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Guatemala, and Honduras all have more modest projections in the baseline (8, 9, 4, 10), while Nepal has just a trace above 0. Aflatoxin concentrations are projected to rise with climate change by all 5 models for Nepal, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nigeria, but only rise for 3 models for Niger and 4 of the 5 models for Burkina Faso. We use regressions with weather variables on projected aflatoxin concentrations levels above 4 ppb to better understand critical levels of rainfall and temperature that could trigger local crises with aflatoxins in on-farm consumption of harvested foods. At the end of the paper, we examine why aflatoxin concentrations in Nepal as reported by the modeling results appear low despite aflatoxins being a significant issue for the country.

Hunger, nutrition, and precipitation: Evidence from Ghana and Bangladesh

Changing precipitation patterns caused by climate change are expected to have major impacts on food security and nutrition in agrarian areas in developing countries. However, the linkages between the duration and severity of precipitation shocks and their effects on child nutrition and household food security metrics remain underexplored. In this study, we used Feed the Future datasets from Ghana and Bangladesh to examine the impact of precipitation extremes on nutrition, measured by children’s height-for-age and weight-for-height Z-scores, and food security, measured by the Household Hunger Scale. We used a spatial error regression to control for the effects of spatial autocorrelation, and we found an association between precipitation shocks and household hunger in both Ghana and Bangladesh, as well as an association between higher rainfall and worse child nutrition in Ghana.